레이블이 Public Vs. Private Accounting Salary인 게시물을 표시합니다. 모든 게시물 표시
레이블이 Public Vs. Private Accounting Salary인 게시물을 표시합니다. 모든 게시물 표시

2013년 11월 29일 금요일

About 'private vs public accounting'|Damned If You . . . WHAT Deep Doo Doo (or Don’t Don’t) Questions For Whistleblowers: Does All It Hinge On Private vs Public Sector Employment







About 'private vs public accounting'|Damned If You . . . WHAT Deep Doo Doo (or Don’t Don’t) Questions For Whistleblowers: Does All It Hinge On Private vs Public Sector Employment








Student               retention               is               a               frequently               discussed               and               commonly               studied               phenomenon               in               higher               education.

Retention               is               the               "ability               of               an               institution               to               retain               a               student               from               admission               through               graduation"               (Seidman,               2005,               p.

14).

Studies               around               retention               typically               center               on               student               attrition               after               the               first               year               of               study.

Attrition,               often               used               interchangeably               with               retention,               is               defined               asa               "student               who               fails               to               reenroll               at               an               institution               in               consecutive               terms"               (Seidman,               2005,               p.

14).

As               related               to               this               definition               of               attrition,               retention               measures               how               a               student               persists               from               their               first               to               second               year               of               study.

Persistence               is               interrelated               with               retention               and               attrition,               and               conceptualized               by               Seidman               (2005),               as               the               "desire               and               action               of               a               student               to               stay               within               the               system               of               higher               education               from               beginning               through               degree               completion"               (p.

14).

In               essence,               a               student               who               successfully               navigates               past               their               first               year               of               college               is               more               likely               to               persist               to               graduation               (Tinto,               as               cited               in               Longwell-Grice               &               Longwell-Grice,               2008).

The               purpose               of               this               literature               review               is               to               examine               student               retention               and               persistence               in               higher               education.

Included               in               this               review               will               be               statistical               information               on               retention,               as               well               as               the               theoretical               frameworks               underlying               retention.

Additional               discussion               will               center               on               practical               strategies               (as               culled               from               the               research               literature)               around               increasing               the               persistence               rates               among               various               student               groups,               including               African               American               male               students.

The               end               of               this               literature               review               will               feature               a               summary               of               important               discussion               points               around               the               theme               of               retention               and               persistence               in               higher               education.
               Retention               Data               and               Statistics               
               ACT,               Inc.

(2009)               provides               national               data               on               college               student               retention               and               completion               rates.

An               examination               of               retention               data               over               a               26-year               period               (1983-2009)               shows               that               student               retention               (as               measured               by               persistence               from               freshman               to               sophomore               year)               was               highest               in               2007               at               all               institutions.

The               lowest               retention               rate               at               all               institutions               was               65.7%               in               2008.

Variance               in               retention               rates               was               evident               across               institutional               types               (2-year,               4-year,               comprehensive,               and               research)               and               institutional               control               types               (public               vs.

private).

For               example,               the               retention               rate               at               all               private               schools,               regardless               of               the               institutional               type,               was               higher               than               the               retention               rate               at               public               schools.

The               largest               retention               gap               between               the               highest               retention               rates               occurred               between               two-year               private               institutions               (72.6%               in               1992),               and               two-year               public               institutions               (53.7%               in               2008).

Conversely,               the               smallest               percentage               of               retention               rates               was               lower               for               all               public               schools,               regardless               of               institutional               type               (ACT,               Inc.,               2009).
               National               data               was               not               available               that               disaggregated               college               student               retention               by               gender,               race               and               ethnicity.

However,               the               U.S.

Department               of               Education's               website               posts               graduation               rates               for               first-time               postsecondary               education               students               who               started               as               full-time               degree               seeking               students.

Although               this               information               does               not               specify               actual               retention               rates,               it               offers               a               snapshot               for               the               reader               to               make               inferences               around               persistence               for               college               students.

For               the               2001               cohort               (the               most               recent               cohort               listed),               the               graduation               rate               at               4-year               institutions               for               students               graduating               within               six               years               was               57.3%.

Among               males               and               females,               the               graduation               rate               within               six               years               was               54.2%               and               60%,               respectively.

The               graduation               rate               among               White,               Black,               Hispanic,               and               Asian/Pacific               Island               students               were               60.3%,               41.5%,               48.3%,               and               66.5%               respectively.

The               graduation               rate               among               these               students               graduating               within               four               years               was               lower,               thus               showing               similar               patterns               between               gender               and               race/ethnic               groups               (U.S.

Department               of               Education,               2009).
               The               Impact               of               Low               Retention               
               Many               students               drop               out               of               college               for               a               variety               of               reasons,               thus               failing               to               persist               and               graduate.

According               to               Berkner,               et               al.,               and               Tinto,               "more               than               half               of               all               students               who               enter               higher               education               will               fail               to               complete               a               bachelor's               degree               within               six               years               (as               cited               in               Museus               &               Quaye,               2009,               p.

67).

Accompanied               by               this               failure               rate               are               negative               consequences               for               the               individual               student               and               for               society               as               a               whole.

The               impact               of               earnings               is               just               one               example               of               negative               consequences               for               the               individual.

On               average,               high               school               graduates               earn               62%               of               their               college               counterparts               (Baum               &               Payea,               as               cited               in               Museus               &               Quaye,               2009).

To               quantify               the               significance               of               student               persistence               and               graduation               attainment,               bachelor's               degree               holders               earn               an               average               of               $2.1               million               over               their               lifetime,               while               those               with               a               high               school               diploma               earn               about               $1.2               million               (Day               &               Newburger,               2002).
               Another               negative               consequence               relates               to               "money               spent               on               tuition               and               fees,               accrued               debt,               and               invested               time               in               educational               endeavors               that               do               not               result               in               the               benefits               that               accompany               a               college               degree"               (Baum               &               Payea;               Choi               &               Li;               Kelly;               and               Swail,               as               cited               in               Museus               &               Quaye,               2009,               p.

67).

For               students               who               have               accumulated               large               amounts               of               loan               debt,               it               is               realistic               that               they               may               experience               financial               hardship               later               on,               due               to               lower               earnings               and               their               failed               investment.

Effective               retention               practices               in               higher               education               are               important,               given               the               notion               that               almost               "80%               of               all               high               school               graduates               will               need               some               higher               education               to               achieve               economic               self-sufficiency"               (McCabe,               as               cited               in               Museus               &               Quaye,               2009,               p.

68).
               The               negative               effects               on               society               are               just               as               debilitating               when               students               drop               out.

High               school               graduates               contribute               only               "56%               of               what               bachelor's               degree               recipients               pay               in               local,               state,               and               federal               taxes"               (Museus               &               Quaye,               2009,               p.

68).

Other               negative               consequences               include               higher               incarceration               rates,               and               decreased               levels               of               academic               preparation               among               future               generations               (Baum               &               Payea;               Swail,               as               cited               in               Museus               &               Quaye,               2009).

Fostering               college               student               success               is               challenging,               but               critical               to               reversing               the               trend               of               negative               societal               consequences.

The               same               eighty               percent               of               high               school               graduates               (as               referenced               above               in               McCabe)               will               need               some               level               of               postsecondary               education               to               "navigate               the               increasingly               complex,               cultural,               social,               and               political               environments               they               will               encounter"               (as               cited               in               Museus               &               Quaye,               2009,               p.

68).
               Relative               to               this               discussion               is               how               the               current               trend               of               racial               and               ethnic               disparities               in               educational               attainment               could               negatively               shape               the               nation's               economy               (Carnevale               &               Desrochers;               &               Kelly;               as               cited               in               Museus               &               Quaye,               2009).

Without               this               viable               demographic               of               college               graduates,               "the               number               of               college-educated               workers               in               the               United               States               will               fall               far               short               of               those               needed               to               sustain               current               levels               of               economic               and               social               growth"               (p.

68).

Given               this,               public               and               higher               education               policies               must               reflect               the               negative               impact               of               racial               and               ethnic               disparities               in               society               and               on               the               nation's               economy.
               Foundational               Retention               Frameworks               
               Interactionalist               Theory               
               Interactionalist               theory               (1975)               is               an               early               framework               around               retention               research,               conceived               by               Vincent               Tinto.

The               premise               of               this               framework               is               that               individual               students               possess               pre-entry               college               characteristics,               which               contribute               to               their               decision               to               persist               or               depart               their               institution.

These               characteristics               include               factors               such               as               an               individual's               socioeconomic               status               and               background,               personal               attributes               and               educational               experiences               before               entering               college.

Pre-entry               college               characteristics               strongly               influence               a               student's               initial               commitment               to               his               or               her               higher               education               institution,               which               affects               their               capacity               to               persist               (Braxton,               2000).

Researchers               who               have               tested               Tinto's               theory               discovered               that               it               does               not               universally               apply               to               all               students               (Grayson               &               Grayson,               2003).

Findings               showed               that               all               outcomes               were               from               research               on               "white,               middle               class-students               who               lived               in               residence               on               campus"               (p.

12).

In               essence,               the               model               fails               to               account               for               diverse               student               groups,               such               as               non-White               and               adult               students.

Other               groups               excluded               from               this               theory               were               students               who               attend               2-year               and               4-year               students,               and               non-traditional               evening               students               who               work               full-time               during               the               day               (Grayson               &               Grayson,               2003).


               
               Student               Integration               Model               
               The               Student               Integration               Model               (1975)               supplements               interactionalist               theory.

It               illustrates               the               process               of               how               students               integrate               academically               and               socially               into               their               college               environment.

In               this               model,               integration               can               either               lead               to               persistence               through               graduation               attainment               or               the               decision               to               drop               out.

Academic               integration               relates               to               a               student's               grade               performance               and               intellectual               development,               while               social               integration               results               from               a               student's               transactions               with               faculty               and               peers               (Grayson               &               Grayson,               2003).

Academic               and               social               integration               not               only               involves               interactions               with               faculty               and               peers,               but               "can               be               a               consequence               for               grade               performance               and               intellectual               development"               (Grayson               &               Grayson,               2003,               p.

12).

Undergraduate               students               who               effectively               incorporate               both               integration               components               are               most               likely               to               persist               and               graduate.

Conversely,               students               who               have               trouble               in               one               or               both               components               of               integration               are               more               likely               to               drop               out.
               Theoretically,               the               converging               of               a               student's               background,               commitment               levels,               and               the               academic               environment,               all               lead               to               persistence               or               drop               out               decisions               (Grayson               &               Grayson,               2003).

Specific               factors               can               lead               to               a               student's               decision               to               persist               or               depart               their               institution               prematurely.

For               example,               disadvantaged               students               who               arrive               at               college               with               low               educational               goals,               and               become               involved               with               negative               peer               groups,               are               likely               to               leave               college.

In               contrast,               advantaged               students               who               have               high               educational               goals,               and               are               equipped               to               engage               positively               with               their               institution,               are               likely               to               persist               and               graduate               within               a               reasonable               amount               of               time               (Grayson               &               Grayson,               2003).
               While               interactionlist               theory               and               the               Student               Integration               Model               provide               a               general               framework               for               explaining               student               drop               out               decisions,               they               fall               short               of               completely               justifying               drop               out               decisions               for               diverse               student               populations.

For               example,               research               findings               from               Tracey               and               Sedlacek               (as               cited               in               Grayson               &               Grayson,               2003)               revealed               that               non-cognitive               factors               better               explained               persistence               and               drop               out               for               Black               students               in               the               United               States.

The               specific               factors               that               contributed               to               this               group's               persistence               included               "positive               self-concept,               realistic               appraisals,               preference               for               long-term               goals               and               leadership"               (Grayson               &               Grayson,               2003,               p.

21).

Later               research               found               that               "Black               students               who               did               not               have               support               from               others,               self-confidence               or               community               involvements               were               the               most               likely               to               drop               out"               (p.

21).

This               finding               confirmed               that               a               more               plausible               relationship               exists               between               non-cognitive               factors               and               persistence               for               Black               students.
               Non-cognitive               factors               also               explained               persistence               and               drop               out               for               Chicano(a)               students.

For               this               group,               self-confidence               and               positive               perceptions               of               the               university               environment               contributed               to               persistence,               compared               to               Chicano(a)               students               without               these               attributes               (Gloria               &               Robinson,               as               cited               in               Grayson               &               Grayson,               2003).

In               both               of               these               examples,               the               findings               resisted               generalizations,               and               discredited               the               widespread               application               of               traditional               frameworks,               such               as               interactionalist               theory               (as               cited               in               Grayson               &               Grayson,               2003).

In               the               end,               no               single               factor               explains               overall               persistence.

The               most               important               explanatory               consideration               is               the               interrelation               of               various               factors               that               include               "demographics,               aspirations,               motivations,               personality,               values,               and               institutional               characteristics"               (Bean,               as               cited               in               Harvey-Smith,               2002,               p.

2).
               Student               Engagement               Practices               
               A               number               of               factors               explain               student               persistence               through               graduation               attainment               and               drop               out               (Braxton,               Hirschy,               &               McClendon,               as               cited               in               Harper               &               Quaye,               2009).

For               both               persistence               and               drop               out,               the               reasons               are               complex,               and               not               easily               credited               to               a               narrow               set               of               explanatory               factors               (Braxton,               Hirschy,               &               McClendon,               as               cited               in               Harper               &               Quaye,               2009).

Empirical               research               suggests               that               student               engagement               is               a               viable               means               to               increasing               graduation               attainment.

Student               engagement               features               two               primary               characteristics,               with               the               first               involving               the               time               and               effort               students               devote               to               their               studies               (Kuh,               Kinzie,               Buckley,               Bridges,               &               Hayek,               as               cited               in               Harper               &               Quaye,               2009).

The               second               component               is               "how               the               institution               deploys               its               resources               and               organizes               the               curriculum,               other               learning               opportunities,               and               support               services               to               induce               students               to               participate               in               activities               that               lead               to               experiences               and               desired               outcomes               such               as               persistence,               satisfaction,               learning,               and               graduation"               (p.

3).

The               combination               of               these               engagement               characteristics               influences               student               retention               and               persistence.
               The               effort               of               an               individual               student,               combined               with               involvement               in               academic               and               social               activities               on               college               campuses,               largely               determines               their               ability               to               persist               (Pascarella               &               Terenzini,               as               cited               in               Harper               &               Quaye,               2009).

Students               who               purposefully               engage               in               campus               activities               accrue               a               number               of               gains,               such               as               increased               levels               of               cognitive               and               skill               development,               higher               levels               of               ethical               and               moral               reasoning,               and               positive               self-images               (Harper               &               Quaye,               2009).

In               addition               to               these               gains,               "students               who               devote               more               time               to               academic               preparation               activities               outside               of               class               earn               higher               grade               point               averages"               (Tross,               Harper,               Osher,               &               Kneidinger,               as               cited               in               Harper               &               Quaye,               2009,               p.

3).

These               qualitative               engagement               practices               serve               as               the               foundation               for               student               persistence               through               graduation,               and               life-long               success.
               Student               engagement               positively               relates               to               persistence,               and               is               "the               single               most               significant               predictor               of               persistence"               (Tinto,               as               cited               in               Harper               &               Quaye,               2009,               p.

4).

From               Tinto's               research,               undergraduate               students               depart               their               institution               early               because               they               feel               disconnected               from               peers,               faculty               and               other               staff               (Harper               &               Quaye,               2009).

Conversely,               students               who               persisted               showed               "higher               levels               of               integration               into               academic               and               social               communities               on               campus               lead               to               higher               levels               of               institutional               commitment"               (Harper               &               Quaye,               2009,               p.

4).

In               addition,               Bean               proposed               that               "institutional               commitment               is               strengthened               when               undergraduates               are               actively               engaged               in               educationally               purposeful               endeavors               that               connect               them               to               the               campus               and               in               which               they               feel               some               sense               of               enduring               obligation               and               responsibility"               (Bean;               Swail,               Redd               &               Perna;               and               Tinto,               as               cited               in               Harper               &               Quaye,               2009,               p.

4).
               Retention               Challenges               and               Strategies               
               The               information               in               the               previous               section               showed               how               engagement               practices               affect               student               persistence.

The               next               few               sections               of               this               literature               review               will               reconsider               student               engagement,               and               take               into               account               the               challenges               of               engagement               for               low-income,               first               generation               college               students,               racial/ethnic               minority               students,               African               American               students,               and               African               American               male               students.

Offered               will               be               suggested               practical               strategies               that               have               shown               to               improve               persistence               rates.
               Low-Income,               First-Generation               College               Students               
               Low-income,               first-generation               college               students               typically               face               a               number               of               barriers               that               affect               their               higher               education               experience.

As               described               by               the               United               States               Department               of               Health               and               Human               Services,               low-income               students               come               from               households               with               incomes               around               $20,000               (Federal               Register,               as               cited               in               Gupton               et               al.,               2009).

First-generation               college               students               are               "defined               as               students               whose               parents               have               not               earned               a               bachelor's               degree"               (Thayer,               as               cited               in               Gupton,               Castelo-Rodriguez,               Martinez               &               Quintanar,               2009,               p.

244).

This               information               serves               as               operational               definitions               for               forthcoming               discussion               on               retention               challenges               for               low-income,               first-generation               college               students.
               Higher               education               officials               recognize               the               need               to               facilitate               persistence               for               low-income,               first-generation               college               students.

The               challenges               that               these               students               encounter               are               numerous,               and               often               negatively               influence               their               persistence               and               graduation               attainment.

Low               academic               achievement               among               low-income,               first-generation               students               is               one               of               many               challenges.

Research               findings               on               low               achievement               showed               that               these               students               "were               more               likely               to               leave               college               and               not               return               the               following               semester               than               were               their               peers               whose               parents               possessed               a               bachelor's               degree"               (Warburton,               Bugarin,               &               Nunez,               as               cited               in               Gupton,               2009,               p.

248).

Other               findings               showed               that               first-generation               students               are               academically               underprepared               (Choy;               and               Hahs-Vaughn,               as               cited               in               Gupton               et               al.,               2009),               and               "do               not               use               their               high               school               experience               to               prepare               for               college"               (Kaufman               &               Chen,               as               cited               in               Gupton               et               al.,               2009,               p.

248).

Low-income,               first-generation               students               who               are               unprepared               often               participate               in               developmental               education               courses               (Gupton               et               al.,               2009).

These               courses               frequently               target               unprepared               students,               and               may               likely               strengthen               academic               performance               in               requisite               college               course               work.
               Another               challenge               relates               to               finances               and               paying               for               a               college               education.

For               many               low-income,               first-generation               students,               financial               obstacles               begin               well               before               being               admitted,               and               last               throughout               the               course               of               their               college               experience.

Financial               barriers               limit               the               extent               to               which               these               students               can               fully               engage               themselves               in               their               campus               culture               (Gupton               et               al.,               2009).

Thus,               a               higher               level               of               engagement,               which               correlates               to               a               strong               probability               of               persistence,               is               unlikely.
               Lower               amounts               of               grant               aid               affect               the               ability               for               students               to               sustain               purposeful               engagement               in               their               higher               education               community.

Gupton               et               al.

(2009)               noted,               "The               amount               of               financial               aid               that               a               student               receives               has               a               major               impact               on               both               the               persistence               and               work               schedule               of               the               student"               (p.

245).

A               study               by               the               U.S.

General               Accounting               Office               (1995)               found               that               "providing               grant               money               to               low-income               students               decreased               their               probability               of               dropping               out,               whereas               loan               aid               resulted               in               an               increased               probability               of               students               leaving               college               without               finishing"               (as               cited               in               Gupton               et               al.,               2009,               p.

246).

When               higher               education               costs               exceed               the               amount               of               financial               aid,               low-income,               first-generation               students               must               work               to               cover               the               costs.

Research               has               found               that               "low-income               students               work               more               hours               on               average               than               other               students               who               work               (Corrigan,               as               cited               in               Gupton               et               al.,               2009,               p.

246).

They               work               to               cover               the               cost               of               financial               aid               not               awarded               to               them.

In               working               additional               hours               (particularly               off               campus),               they               "lose               valuable               opportunities               to               engage               with               students,               faculty,               and               staff               on               their               campuses"               (p.

246).
               As               noted               by               Gupton               et               al.

(2009),               the               lack               of               financial               resources               contribute               to               lower               retention               and               high               dropout               rates               among               low-income,               first-generation               students.

Given               this               phenomenon,               higher               education               officials               and               policy               makers               have               many               opportunities               to               change               practices               around               improving               retention               and               persistence               for               this               student               group.

As               mentioned,               student               engagement               into               the               campus               culture               is               critical               to               their               persistence.

When               engaging               students,               the               issue               to               consider               at               the               forefront               would               center               on               ways               to               alleviate               the               financial               burdens               that               these               students               experience               (Gupton               et               al.,               2009).

Once               their               financial               burden               has               been               resolved,               students               "can               engage               with               the               resources               in               their               campus               community               that               allow               them               to               maximize               their               human               potential"               (Gupton               et               al.,               2009,               p.

247).


               
               Racial               and               Ethnic               Minority               Students               
               Retaining               racial               and               ethnic               minority               students               continues               to               be               a               challenge               for               higher               education               officials               across               institutions               nationwide.

As               pointed               out               earlier,               data               from               the               U.S.

Department               of               Education               (2009)               cited               that               graduation               rates               were               consistently               low               among               racial               and               ethnic               minority               students,               compared               to               White               students               (see               "Retention               Data               and               Statistics"               section               above).

Interactionalist               theorists               would               suggest               that               these               students               possessed               pre-college               characteristics               that               theoretically               led               to               their               lower               rates               of               persistence               through               graduation               (Braxton,               2000).

The               Student               Integration               Model               would               suggest               that               these               students               have               engaged               poorly               with               their               academic               and               social               environments,               thus               contributing               to               their               lower               persistence               through               graduation               rates               (Grayson               &               Grayson,               2003).
               Again,               retention               theory               premises               that               student               engagement               relates               to               persistence.

For               minority               students               at               predominantly               White               campuses,               attempts               to               engage               the               academic               and               social               environment               may               act               as               a               deterrent               to               persistence.

These               students               face               a               number               of               issues,               and               must               constantly               contend               with               many               aspects               of               Whiteness               (Quaye,               Tambascia,               &               Talesh,               2009).

Among               a               number               of               concerns,               minority               students               are               subject               to               western-based               curricula,               have               little               contact               with               same-race/ethnic               faculty,               and               they               become               frequently               isolated               (Quaye               et               al.,               2009).
               In               many               instances,               curricular               content               does               not               always               reflect               the               diversity               of               the               student               body.

In               fact,               "issues               pertaining               to               the               cultures               of               racial/ethnic               minority               students               are               often               missing               in               classroom               readings               and               discussions"               (Banks,               as               cited               in               Quaye               et               al.,               2009,               p.

161).

Much               of               the               curricular               content               sends               the               "message               to               racial/ethnic               minority               students               that               whiteness               is               normal               and               that               other               practices               or               beliefs               from               different               cultures               are               not               valued"               (Delpit;               and               Schmitz,               as               cited               in               Quaye               et               al.,               2009,               p.

161).

Furthermore,               western-based               curricular               content               invalidates               the               experiences               of               minority               students,               in               "which               [these               experiences]               are               rarely               present               in               any               form               in               the               higher               education               setting"               (Terenzi               et               al.,               as               cited               in               Quaye               et               al.,               2009,               p.

161).
               In               having               to               respond               to               traditional               curricula,               minority               students               gradually               become               disengaged               from               the               learning               process.

Consequently,               these               students               drop               out               of               their               institution,               with               minimal               prospects               of               returning.

In               reversing               this               trend,               faculty               should               use               an               array               of               academic               content               showing               the               contributions               of               minority               persons               in               various               fields               (Quaye               et               al.,               2009).

Faculty               should               solicit               peers               to               review               jointly               the               course               syllabi.

This               approach               would               ensure               that               assigned               readings               and               other               class               content               reflect               diverse               perspectives               (Quaye               et               al.,               2009).

Deans               and               other               administrative               personnel               must               actively               promote               the               use               of               diverse               content               in               all               curricula.

This               would               partially               substantiate               the               institution's               attempt               to               reengage               minority               students               in               the               learning               process.
               According               to               the               Student               Integration               Model,               student               interaction               with               faculty               promotes               student               persistence.

Research               conducted               by               Nettles               (as               cited               in               Harvey-Smith,               2003)               showed               positive               correlations               between               high               levels               of               student-faculty               interaction               and               better               academic               performance.

However,               other               research               shows               that               "minority               students               are               not               provided               opportunities               to               interact               with               White               faculty               at               the               same               level               and               quality               as               their               White               peers"               (p.

5).

For               example,               Dinka               et               al.,               and               Nettles               (as               cited               in               Harvey-Smith,               2003)               reported               that               African               American               students               have               difficulties               forming               close               relationships               with               Caucasian               faculty.

In               an               earlier               study,               Christiansen               and               Sedlacek               discovered               that               when               African               American               students               did               interact               with               Caucasian               faculty,               "they               found               it               difficult               to               get               helpful               feedback,               or               felt               that               the               comments               from               faculty               tended               to               be               either               overly               negative               or               overly               positive"               (as               cited               in               Harvey-Smith,               2003,               p.

5).
               These               research               findings               may               have               general               implications               for               all               minority               students.

Due               to               the               perceived               hostility               against               African               American               students,               per               the               study               cited               in               Harvey-Smith               (2003),               minority               students               may               be               less               likely               to               seek               interaction               with               Caucasian               faculty.

The               reality               on               predominantly               White               campuses               is               that               racial/ethnic               minority               students               are               likely               to               have               frequent               interactions               with               White               faculty,               than               with               same               race-ethnic               faculty.

This               is               an               expectation,               given               that               only               12               percent               of               race               and               ethnic               minority               faculty               have               earned               full               professorship               (Harvey,               as               cited               in               Quaye               et               al.,               2009).

This               illustrates               the               frustration               of               racial/ethnic               minority               students               to               find               the               same               race-ethnic               faculty               members               to               serve               as               mentors               or               advisors               (Quaye               et               al.,               2009).
               The               research               studies               on               student-faculty               interaction               (as               cited               in               Harvey-Smith,               2003)               supports               the               need               for               strategies               to               increase               minority               student               engagement               with               faculty.

Smith               pointed               out               that               higher               education               institutions               would               benefit               from               having               more               racial/ethnic               minority               faculty               members               (as               cited               in               Quaye               et               al.,               2009).

She               argued               for               having               racial/ethnic               minority               faculty               members,               because               they               (1)               have               the               ability               to               serve               as               mentors               to               racial/ethnic               minority               students,               (2)               are               committed               to               a               more               diverse               campus               environment,               (3)               can               create               comfortable               and               inclusive               environments,               and               (4)               offer               diverse               viewpoints               on               teaching               and               learning               (Smith,               as               cited               in               Quaye               et               al.,               2009).

In               the               end,               racial               and               ethnic               minority               faculty               members               can               benefit               in               supporting               students               "who               may               feel               disconnected               and               isolated               on               predominantly               White               campuses"               (Quaye               et               al.,               2009,               p.

173).


               
               African               American               Students               
               Astin               (1972)               found               that               Caucasian               students               had               higher               persistence               rates               than               African               American               students,               particularly               when               holding               abilities               and               achievements               as               constant.

Among               all               ethnic               populations,               African               American               students               are               more               likely               to               come               from               poorer               socioeconomic               backgrounds               (Leppel,               2002).

The               quality               of               their               K-12               educational               experiences               may               be               lower,               "disadvantaging               them               in               the               college               classroom               and               making               higher               education               a               more               difficult               and               stressful               experience"               (p.

437).

Research               suggests               that               at               traditional               White               institutions,               African               American               students               have               lower               levels               of               academic               integration               and               express               dissatisfaction               with               their               university               (Nettles,               Theony               &               Gosman,               as               cited               in               Fries-Britt               &               Turner,               2002).

These               and               other               factors               contribute               to               low               academic               achievement               and               frustration               among               African               American               students;               in               turn,               negatively               affecting               their               persistence.
               Individual               attributes,               motivation               and               other               background               characteristics               are               the               cornerstone               of               persistence               and               success               among               all               college               students.

Fries-Britt               and               Turner               (2002)               reiterated               the               importance               of               faculty               engagement               with               African               American               students               in               promoting               their               persistence,               high               academic               achievement,               and               success.

They               noted               that               educators               must               create               institutional               support               systems,               so               that               African               American               students               will               develop               the               personal               confidence               that               will               "propel               them               toward               academic               pursuits"               (p.

326).

Faculty               engagement               with               African               American               students               should               be               genuine,               both               in               and               out               of               the               classroom.

This               practice               facilitates               student               interaction               with               faculty,               increases               student-faculty               engagement,               and               decreases               the               anxiety               levels               often               felt               by               students.
               Summer               bridge               programs               are               highly               beneficial               to               racial               and               ethnic               minority               students,               and               particularly               for               African               American               students.

Bridge               programs               enable               students               to               build               peer               networks               and               participate               in               classroom               activities               prior               to               the               academic               start               of               the               academic               year               (Quaye               et               al.,               2009).

Summer               bridge               programs               allow               student               peers               to               support               one               another,               while               "gathering               knowledge               and               skills               that               will               prepare               them               for               their               upcoming               academic               experience"               (p.

170).

Furthermore,               bridge               programs               help               students               "navigate               the               campus               environment               in               the               company               of               their               peers               who               are               also               striving               to               do               the               same"               (p.

170).

The               critical               aspect               of               summer               bridge               programs               is               that               it               enables               student               engagement,               which               would               likely               promote               student               persistence               and               success.
               African               American               College               Men               
               The               retention               rate               for               undergraduate               students               at               all               colleges               and               universities               are               generally               low.

In               fact,               2005               figures               show               that               roughly               56               percent               of               students               graduated               within               six               years               (Harper               &               Quaye,               2009).

Retention               rates               are               significantly               problematic               among               African               American               male               undergraduates.

This               group               of               students               held               the               "worst               college               completion               rate               among               both               sexes               and               all               racial/ethnic               groups               (Harper,               as               cited               in               Harper,               2009).

Nearly               one-third               of               African               American               males               who               start               college               finish               within               six               years,               according               to               information               cited               from               the               2005               National               Center               on               Education               Statistics               (Harper,               2009).

Clearly,               this               information               represents               a               significant               decline               in               the               number               of               African               American               males               who               finish               college.
               Research               in               the               1970s               and               1980s               found               that               African               American               males               were               relatively               omnipresent,               and               had               higher               levels               of               institutional               engagement               than               their               female               counterpart               (Harper,               2009).

Now,               African               American               females               have               higher               levels               of               engagement               across               all               institutional               types.

Harper,               Carini,               Bridges,               and               Hayek               found               that               "women               no               longer               lag               behind               men               in               their               academic               and               social               engagement               experiences"               (as               cited               in               Harper,               2009,               p.

142).

The               element               of               time               has               dictated               how               African               American               females               have               instantly               "overcome               the               engagement               odds               and               social               passivity               of               years               past"               (Harper,               Carini,               Bridges,               &               Hayek,               as               cited               in               Harper,               2009,               p.

142).
               Michael               Cuyjet               (1997)               offers               evidence               of               the               decline,               and               reversing               trend               in               engagement               among               African               American               men.

In               his               analysis               of               national               data               from               the               College               Student               Experiences               Questionnaire,               Cuyjet               found               that               "Black               men               devoted               less               time               to               studying,               took               notes               in               class               less               often,               spent               significantly               less               time               writing               and               revising               papers,               and               participated               less               often               in               class-related               collaborative               experiences"               (Harper,               2009,               p.

143).

In               comparison,               African               American               females               were               involved               in               "campus               activities,               looked               more               frequently               in               their               campus               newspapers               for               notices               about               upcoming               events               and               engagement               opportunities,               attended               more               meetings               and               programs,               served               on               more               campus               committees,               and               held               more               leadership               positions               at               their               institutions"               (p.

143).

African               American               men,               however,               reported               higher               levels               of               engagement               in               physical               activities.

In               the               end,               these               findings               revealed               how               African               American               females               were               actively               involved               in               leadership               and               other               academic               and               social               opportunities               (Harper,               2009).

Conversely,               African               American               males               were               "doing               nothing,               pursuing               romantic               endeavors               with               female               students,               playing               basketball               and               working               out               in               the               campus               fitness               center"               (p.

143),               among               other               things.
               Kimbrough               and               Harper's               (2006)               qualitative               study               supports               the               significant               decline               in               engagement               among               African               American               men.

The               authors               offered               these               five               explanatory               factors               for               disengagement               among               African               American               men:
               (1)               Men               deem               sports,               physical               activity,               and               athleticism               more               socially               acceptable               and               "cooler"               than               campus               leadership               and               purposeful               engagement;               (2)               male               students               typically               encounter               difficulty               working               together,               which               is               often               required               in               student               organizations;               (3)               many               Black               men               come               to               college               having               already               been               socialized               to               devalue               purposeful               engagement;               (4)               there               is               a               shortage               of               Black               male               role               models               and               mentors               on               campus               who               actively               and               strategically               promote               purposeful               engagement;               and               (5)               many               Black               men               are               unable               to               meet               the               minimum               2.5               grade               point               average               requirement               for               membership               in               one               of               the               five               historically               Black               fraternities.

(Kimbrough               &               Harper,               as               cited               in               Harper               2009,               p.

144).
               These               explanatory               factors               are               problematic,               in               that               they               "almost               exclusively               attribute               disengagement               to               students'               attitudes               and               behaviors               (Harper,               2009,               p.

144).

Given               this,               higher               education               administrators               must               strategically               foster               institutional               engagement,               and               respond               to               the               factors               that               compelled               African               American               men               to               detach               from               the               educational               experience               (Harper,               2009).
               Higher               education               officials               have               a               daunting               task               to               recruit,               enroll,               and               retain               African               American               men               within               their               institutions.

To               facilitate               persistence               for               this               group,               colleges               and               universities               must               intentionally               develop               strategies               that               would               support               high               levels               of               institutional               engagement.

Collaborative               processes               among               faculty,               staff,               administrators,               and               researchers               might               help               close               the               racial               and               gender               gaps               that               disadvantage               African               American               males.

Institutional               members               would               use               this               teaming               process               to               "examine               unique               data               sources               that               could               provide               some               insights               into               inequities               that               would               otherwise               remain               hidden"               (Harper,               2009,               p.

151).

Such               effort               would               allow               respective               team               members               to               "uncover"               specific               practices               around               how               they               engage               with               African               American               men.

Team               members               then               "approach               planning               and               institutional               transformation               efforts               with               greater               enthusiasm,               purpose,               and               focus"               (Harper,               2009,               p.

151).
               Engagement               teams               work               to               reduce               the               racial               and               gender               gaps               among               African               American               male               students.

Engagement               team               members               are               typically               on               the               front               line               of               interaction               with               African               American               male               students;               and               mainly               consist               of               faculty               and               other               professionals,               and               members               from               academic               advisement               offices,               student               and               residence               life,               and               ethnic               culture               centers.

Members               of               this               team               can               work               with               students               to               develop               individual               engagement               plans,               such               as               how               to               develop               engagement               opportunities               in               a               number               of               areas               within               the               academic               environments               (Harper,               2009).
               Committees               specifically               designated               to               improve               the               academic               standing               of               African               American               males               may               be               a               useful               strategy               to               increase               institutional               engagement               (Harper,               2009).

Deans,               department               chairs,               and               other               administrative               personnel,               "can               work               together               to               envision,               implement,               and               assess               a               systematic               set               of               initiatives               to               improve               grades,               transfer               trends,               and               retention               and               graduation               rates"               (p.

152).

Ideally,               committee               team               efforts               would               ensure               that               institutional               resources               are               available               and               accessible               to               African               American               males.

In               any               case,               institutions               should               rely               on               trustworthy               data               sources               to               develop               sound               strategies.

In               addition,               qualitative               interviews               with               African               American               men               "who               have               persisted,               performed               well,               and               benefited               from               participation               in               enriching               educational               experiences"               (p.

152)               would               be               most               beneficial.
               Summary               of               the               Literature               Review               
               The               purpose               of               this               literature               review               was               to               examine               student               retention               and               persistence               in               higher               education.

In               the               retention               data               section,               aggregated               information               showed               the               overall               retention               rates               for               students               at               all               institutions.

Data               from               the               U.S.

Department               of               Education               showed               graduation               trends               between               males               and               females,               and               among               major               race/ethnic               groups,               at               four-year               institutions.

There               was               discussion               on               how               low               retention               in               colleges               and               universities               affects               the               individual               and               shapes               society.

As               noted,               influential               higher               education               policies               around               retention               would               likely               improve               retention               practices,               and               change               how               these               practices               influence               the               individual               and               society.

Identified               in               this               literature               review               was               information               on               traditional               retention               theories.

These               theories               generally               explained               the               factors               that               led               students               to               remain               at               their               institution,               or               depart               prematurely.

The               last               part               of               the               literature               review               included               information               on               retention               challenges               and               strategies               for               a               few               select               student               groups,               including               African               American               students.
               On               a               final               note,               discussion               in               higher               education               will               continue               to               center               on               retention.

Issues               around               retention               are               likely               to               persist,               unless               there               is               aggressive               action               to               "treat"               the               condition.

For               traditionally               underrepresented               students,               the               retention               problem               is               manifold.

A               unique               set               of               experiences               and               history               continues               to               threaten               opportunities               for               higher               levels               of               persistence               among               these               students.

The               solution               to               resolving               retention               problems               are               complex               and               dynamic.

Nonetheless,               measurable               and               data-driven               programs               are               likely               to               improve               low               retention               rates,               while               simultaneously               changing               the               face               of               higher               education               in               a               global               society.
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